From Mat to Matter: How Yoga Shapes the Brain (By Ella Kugele)

Introduction: What is yoga?

‘Yoga’ is a Sanskrit word that translates to ‘join’ or ‘unite’ in English. Yoga is a practice that seeks to unite the body, mind, and soul, originating in ancient India and dating back over 5000 years (Henry, 2026). Yoga originated as a meditative practice, its physical aspects becoming popularised later. Common modern-day practices focus mainly on the physical postures (Asana), breathing techniques (Pranayama) and meditation (Dhyana); however, these are only three examples of what are known as the eight limbs of yoga (Ashtanga; ashta=eight, anga=limb). In addition to Asana, Pranayama, and Dhyana, the eight limbs also include restraint and discipline (Yama), positive duties (Niyama), sense withdrawal (Pratyahara), concentration (Dharana), and bliss or union (Samadhi) (Zapolskyte, 2026). Regular yoga practice has obvious physical benefits such as improving strength and flexibility, but aligned with these eight limbs, it can also benefit the brain by modulating the stress response, cognition, emotion, and awareness of internal signals. By understanding the crossover between neuroscience and yoga, we can utilise this practice to improve both our psychological and physical wellbeing. This review summarises theories and current neuroscience evidence related to how yoga can alter our brain, as well as the benefits it can bring into everyday life.

The Brain's Stress Response: Cortisol

Imagine you are about to take an important exam; your heart starts beating faster, your breathing increases, and you might even start sweating. This is your body's physiological response to stress, commonly known as ‘fight-or-flight’. These responses are initiated by the brain, which sends signals to the rest of your body via the sympathetic nervous system, preparing the body for action. Responding to perceived threat, the body releases hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol. Adrenaline is the hormone responsible for rapid responses to stress, such as fast breathing, accelerated heart rate, and sweating, which are useful in short-term stressful situations. Cortisol, which is commonly known as the ‘stress hormone’, is responsible for increasing blood sugar and providing immediate energy, while also suppressing non-essential body functions like those related to digestion and the immune system. These hormones are essential and useful; however, consistently high levels of cortisol can be detrimental to overall health and wellbeing by disrupting sleep, chronically elevating blood pressure and sugar levels, depleting the immune system, and increasing risk of mood volatility and anxiety.

Yoga involves the combination of movement, breathing, and attentional regulation, and researchers have suggested that these aspects may help the body manage stress and regulate cortisol levels. Thirthalli et al. (2013) compared three groups of patients: one practising yoga, one combining yoga with antidepressant medication, and one taking antidepressant medication alone. They found that a higher number of patients in the yoga groups had a reduced cortisol level as opposed to the drug-only group, and the drop in cortisol also correlated with an antidepressant effect, measured by the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) at the start of treatment and at the end of the 3 month study period. The study provides a correlation between yoga practice and reduced cortisol as well as an improved overall mood. Although this particular study does not establish exactly how yoga produces these changes, one theory implicates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, a system involving the brain and adrenal glands, that regulates the body's response to stress. The movement, breathing, and meditative aspects of yoga may reduce activation of the HPA axis, resulting in lower cortisol production and potentially contributing to mood improvements.

Furthermore, Benvenutti et al. (2017) performed a study where participants completed either a specific type of yoga called ‘Hatha’ or a control activity before an acute stressor (a stimulus that causes short-term stress). The yoga group exhibited faster blood pressure recovery and lower cortisol reactivity, meaning the body returned to a calm state faster after experiencing the stress. This evidence suggests that yoga may help regulate the body’s response to stress and how it recovers from stress. However, more research is needed to understand the exact mechanism behind how yoga affects cortisol.

Executive Function and Cognition in Aging

The term “executive function” refers to the set of cognitive processes and skills that organise thoughts and enable us to plan and execute behaviours. The cognitive system naturally deteriorates as we get older, but yoga is emerging as a promising way to help slow down this cognitive decline. The set of executive functions encompasses working memory, inhibition, problem-solving, and, lastly, attentional control, which relates to the sixth limb of yoga. Dharana refers to the maintenance of attention on the breath and repeatedly bringing focus back when the mind wanders. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is one crucial area at the front of the brain that regulates behaviour and decision-making, vital for high cognitive function. A recent brain-imaging study by Goodrick et al. (2025) found significant increases in PFC activity after performing three asana postures, compared to a control group. This increased PFC activity suggests that performing these asanas may engage brain systems involved in controlling attention and behaviour, particularly relevant to Dharana or the maintenance of attention during yoga practice.

Additionally, many studies have shown that prolonged elevated cortisol contributes to accelerated cognitive decline. One theory is that yoga's modulatory effects on cortisol could also help protect cognition and executive function as we age.  Working memory is a type of short-term memory, storing information for immediate use and helping perform essential tasks like problem solving and learning. Indeed, Gothe et al. (2016) found that after eight weeks of regular yoga practice, older individuals showed improvements in a working memory performance task. This may suggest that yoga could support executive functioning in older adults, potentially through its effects on stress regulation.

The Amygdala: Emotions

The amygdala is a small almond-shaped structure in the brain that plays a role in how we experience emotions. When dysregulated, the amygdala can contribute to increased perception of fear and influence the release of cortisol, leading to a stress response.

It is theorised that yoga practice can influence activity in  the amygdala, dialling down emotional reactivity and reducing the intensity of responses to stressful situations. Deep breathing techniques like pranayama can activate the counter system to our ‘fight or flight response’, known as the parasympathetic nervous system. This may reduce activation of the body's stress-response systems, potentially helping to regulate cortisol and calm the body, with evidence of positive effects on clinical stress and anxiety. Novaes et al. (2020) studied brain activity after 4 weeks of pranayama practice, using MRI to track changes in activity in the amygdala as well as other areas involved in emotional processing. Changes in how these brain regions communicated with each other (known as connectivity) were correlated with changes in anxiety, providing evidence of a significant link between pranayama and a decrease in anxiety.

The meditative limb of yoga, known as Dhyana, can help improve mood and emotional regulation. Kral et al. (2018) investigated this further using brain imaging techniques to determine the effect of long-term meditation (participants with average of 9081 hours of lifetime practice) on ‘amygdala reactivity’, which refers to how strongly the amygdala responds to emotional information. The study also compared the long-term effects against those of short-term meditation, where participants completed an 8-week mindfulness based stress reduction course. Amygdala reactivity was measured in response to positive and negative emotional pictures; ultimately, their results linked meditation to reduced reactivity in the amygdala, particularly to the positive emotions rather than negative. Thus, meditation may make the brain less reactive to emotions and better at regulating them by improving communication between the brain and emotional regulation areas, although some of these changes may require a lot more long-term practice.

Interoception

Interoception refers to our ability to sense and interpret signals from inside the body, such as breathing, heartbeat, temperature, hunger, and fatigue. This idea of being in the present moment and noticing exactly what one feels is a key part of yoga. Struggling with the perception of these internal signals can lead to feelings of being overwhelmed, or emotions going unnoticed until pushed to exhaustion and they ‘explode’. Developing a strong interoceptive awareness is crucial for psychological and physical wellbeing.

In yoga practice, there is a constant direction towards bodily sensations, such as noticing one’s feet or hands pushing into the floor, or placing a hand on one’s belly as it rises and falls with breathing. This practice can help increase awareness of interoceptive signals, allowing individuals to recognise subtle changes in their physical state earlier. Bornemann and Singer (2017) found that 9 months of mindfulness-based training focused on attention to bodily sensations was associated with improvements in interoceptive awareness and psychological wellbeing. Over time, this training may support better emotional regulation and responsiveness to the body's signals before they become overwhelming.

In addition, interoception is becoming increasingly linked to how pain is felt. A very recent 2025 study by Voss, Patel and Gothe investigated the effects of a 6-week yoga practice on chronic pain patients. A reduction in pain after this interoceptive-focused yoga practice was found alongside higher accuracy in interpretation of body signals, indicating promise for improving pain. Being more aware of bodily sensations may help people respond better to pain signals; however, future studies further investigating the exact mechanism behind this are advised.

Putting it All Together

Overall, current scientific evidence supports the idea that yoga has many beneficial effects on both the brain and body through its combination of movement, breathing, and meditation. Across research, yoga has been linked to reduced cortisol and improved recovery from stress, changes in activity and connections in the brain regions involved in emotion and cognitive control, particularly the amygdala and PFC, and also increased awareness of internal bodily signals. These effects may help explain how yoga can support emotional regulation, cognitive function and overall wellbeing. However, much of the current research is still developing, so while yoga shows early promise as a way of supporting both physical and psychological health, further research is needed to understand exactly how these different practices produce the changes we have seen in the brain and body.

 -- Ella Kugele

Bibliography (APA 7)

Benvenutti, M. J., Alves, E. da S., Michael, S., Ding, D., Stamatakis, E., & Edwards, K. M. (2017). A single session of Hatha yoga improves stress reactivity and recovery after an acute psychological stress task—A counterbalanced, randomized-crossover trial in healthy individuals. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 35, 120–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2017.10.009

Bornemann, B., & Singer, T. (2016). Taking time to feel our body: Steady increases in heartbeat perception accuracy and decreases in alexithymia over 9 months of contemplative mental training. Psychophysiology, 54(3), 469–482. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.12790

Goodrick, M., Eleazar Samuel Kolosovas-Machuca, & Guevara, E. (2025). Yoga asana increases pre-frontal cortex activity and reduces resting state functional connectivity. Complementary Medicine Research, 32(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000545381

Gothe, N. P., Keswani, R. K., & McAuley, E. (2016). Yoga practice improves executive function by attenuating stress levels. Biological Psychology, 121, 109–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2016.10.010

Henry, M. (2024, February 22). Yoga: Origins | yogi times. YOGI Times. https://www.yogitimes.com/yoga-what-is-origins-definition-etymology-philosophy-benefits

Kral, T. R. A., Schuyler, B. S., Mumford, J. A., Rosenkranz, M. A., Lutz, A., & Davidson, R. J. (2018). Impact of short- and long-term mindfulness meditation training on amygdala reactivity to emotional stimuli. NeuroImage, 181, 301–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.013

Novaes, M. M., Palhano-Fontes, F., Onias, H., Andrade, K. C., Lobão-Soares, B., Arruda-Sanchez, T., Kozasa, E. H., Santaella, D. F., & de Araujo, D. B. (2020). Effects of yoga respiratory practice (bhastrika pranayama) on anxiety, affect, and brain functional connectivity and activity: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00467

Thirthalli, J., Naveen, G., Rao, M., Varambally, S., Christopher, R., & Gangadhar, B. (2013). Cortisol and antidepressant effects of yoga. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(7), 405. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.116315

Voss, S., Patel, I., Skowron, C., Petruzzello, S., & Gothe, N. P. (2025). Interoception-based yoga for chronic pain: A pilot feasibility study. Global Advances in Integrative Medicine and Health, 14. https://doi.org/10.1177/27536130251400362

Zapolskyte, G. (2026, May 5). The eight limbs of yoga: A complete guide to Patanjali’s path. Yogajala. https://yogajala.com/eight-limbs-of-yoga/

Author Biography:

Ella is a graduate Neuroscience student from Cardiff University (Wales, UK) with a strong fascination for understanding the mechanisms underlying neurological disease and exploring ways to prevent or improve health outcomes. Ella hopes to pursue a career in clinical research and contribute to advancements that help improve our understanding and treatment of neurological conditions.